GENERAL INFORMATION
Contents:
Pulp and paper manufacturing process
Dioxins and chlorine in the
paper making process
College Creek rainforest area threatened by plantation harvesting in surrounding catchment.
About us:
The aim of this site is to provide information to the public about current
mismanagement of forests by both the makers of Australian Paper (Paperlinx),
and the Department of Natural Resources and Environment (Victorian Government).
We are extremely concerned that our dwindling native forests - especially
in the Gippsland and Central Highlands regions of Victoria - are being
destroyed for the production of Reflex copy paper and other AP products.
We are also alarmed at current plantation management by Paperlinx and
have been forced to create this website to inform the general public about
environmental issues involved with the manufacture of Australian Paper.
This website has been made by concerned citizens who four years ago embarked on a project to determine the source of Australian Paper products. Through the course of this project we have come across many many people concerned with similar issues. It is hoped that this website can be used by everyone to make informed decisions about their paper source and to educate themselves on the current situation of Victorian forest management. We are more than happy to add new information to this site as it comes to hand. We are also happy to provide examples of good forest management by Paperlinx and the DNRE.
This site is in no way connected with Paperlinx or any companies associated
with the production of paper in Australia. We like to see ourselves as
corporate watchdogs providing up to date information about forests and
paper production. Feel free to contact us at reflexwatch@hotmail.com
Who are Australian Paper/Paperlinx?
Paperlinx is Australasia's leading maker and seller of office papers such as Reflex Copy Paper. Paperlinx is Australian Paper's parent company. Amcor and APM (Australian Paper Manufacturers) were historically Australian Paper's parent companies. Australian Paper is the sole producer of fine printing and writing papers and sack and bag grade paper in Australia. Australian Paper mainly focus on office paper, converting paper and specialty andprinting papers. Australian Paper have four mills located at Maryvale (Victoria), Shoalhaven (NSW), Burnie (Tasmania) and Wesley Vale (Tasmania).
Maryvale Mill sources fibre from plantation pine and eucalypt, native forests, sawmill residues and recycled paper. Shoalhaven sources itsfibre from recycled waste paper, milk cartons, cotton linters and imported pulp. Burnie sources its fibre from imported pulp whilst Wesley Vale sources its fibre needs from plantation pulp, native forests and sawmill residues. Each year Maryvale mill produces 483,000 tonnes of pulp and 560,000tonnes of paper and paperboard.
With the closure of the Burnie Pulp mill in June 1998 and the subsequent decision by Amcor to no longer source pulp from Tasmania's native forests (Amcor was supplied approximately 300 000 tonnes of woodchips by North Forest Products until late 1998), Amcor was faced with the issue of importing pulp to satisfy its pulp requirements. As reported in the Age 4/6/98 "Amcor intends importing 75 000 tonnes a year of pulp feedstock for its two Burnie paper machines and will spend about $5.5 million adapting the existing plant to accept the imported pulp. The company will also have to import about 50 000 tonnes of pulp a year to supply its new $350 million M5 copypaper machine at Maryvale". "Paper and paperboard production at the Maryvale's four machines will expand from 425 000 tonnes to 575 000 tonnes. . . Maryvale also produces 425 000 tonnes of pulp a year . . . Fibre, the raw material for the new paper machine, includes some softwood but is mainly hardwood from plantations, local sawmill residues and low-quality wood from state forests" (Age 1/3/99 pB1). Analysts expected that the hardwood pulp would be supplied from Indonesia. After a discussion with Amcor representatives in early March 1999 it is apparent that there are 3 sources of overseas pulp now making their way into Amcor's operations in Tasmania. These sources are; eucalypt plantation pulp from Aracruz in Brazil, pulp from Advance Agro in Thailand and mixed tropical hardwood pulp from the Indonesian company Riau Andalan. These imports are used for a variety of papers including offset printing grade, centrefold gloss etc and we argue that all are from unsustainable sources and all imports of pulp come with a whole host of ecological and human rights concerns.
In regards to Maryvale, prior to July 1998 Amcor imported bleached long fibre mainly from New Zealand (radiata pine probably supplied by Fletcher Challenge) and the west coast of North America. Since July Amcor has to import bleached short fibre from South America (most likely Brazil), Thailand and Indonesia although noone from the company would elaborate on the companies supplying the fibre, although they are more than likely to be the same companies supplying Amcor/Paperlinx's Tasmanian mills.
Paperlinx has an agreement with the Victorian State Government to gain
access to native forest fibre until the year 2030. Most of this is supplied
from the Central Highlands region of Victoria and the southern Gippsland
region of Victoria. Paperlinx also source woodchips from forests held
by Hancock Victorian Plantations, who have long raised the ire of Strzelecki
conservationists because of the appalling logging practices of Victorian
Plantation Corporation (Hancock, a subsidiary of an American insurance
company, took over VPC in November 1998.) For more information on Hancock's
activities go to: www.hancock.forests.org.au
Map showing Australian Paper's logging concession area:
South Gippsland and the Strzelecki Ranges.
Friends of the Gippsland Bush Inc (FOGB) was formed during 1996 as a community
response to Amcor's application to clear 1995 hectares of native vegetation
of which a large percentage was located in the Strezlecki Ranges. What
began as a campaign to demonstrate the folly of this attempted enterprise
soon highlighted the need for a set of conditions that would improve the
standard of present harvesting practices. Non-compliance with the Code
of Forest Practices * is rife. This was demonstrated by the report of
Panel Hearings on Application by Amcor Plantations Pty Ltd in 1996. The
Panel, personally selected by the Planning Minister, reported that Amcor
was unable to demonstrate compliance to the Code. The Panel, after one
week of field observations around the various shires, was critical of
the roles played by the Shire and the Department of Natural Resources
who presented cases supporting Amcor's application. It should not be assumed
that the Panel's findings were obtained from observing practices used
for harvesting of native vegetation as, at that time, only areas of plantation
harvesting were visited. Plantation harvesting practices clearly demonstrate
the poor standards of the industry.
Present clearfelling techniques highlight the need for enforcement of protection laws pertaining to retention of native vegetation and soil and the right to maintain access to quality water for all those who access it. Problems in the industry will not disappear by asserting that accredited foresters have attained standards that will achieve the requirements as prescribed in the Code of Practice . . . Members of FOGB have monitored the outcomes of industry operations from 1996 to present date. . . Our consensus is that standards of operations over this time have declined rather than improved. A demonstrated brazenness in the industry openly defies stipulated requirements of The Code and State and Local Planning Ordinances relating to timber harvesting procedures . . .
FOGB and APP achieved local accord through the implementation of an 8-point agreement addressing the application to clear 1995 ha of native vegetation. The agreeement provides for careful compilation of coupe plans developed by the use of ENVIRONMENTAL CARE PRINCIPLES and APPLICATION OF CODE - private native forests and all plantations of the Code of Practice. It is achieving outcomes that will protect identified biodiversity values, and provide sustainable industry practices. Many observers such as local Shires, DNRE and the timber industry have failed to recognise that the agreement between APP and FOGB demonstrates Code of Practice in action and is not limited to the clearing of native vegetation . . . "
Forests (Wood Pulp Agreement) Act 1996 - A Brief Overview
This agreement assented to on July 2 1996, granted Amcor (now calledPaperlinx) supply of pulp wood, sourced from native forests from theCentral Highlands, Gippsland and South Gippsland/Strzelecki regions for the purposes of manufacturing wood pulp. (See Map). Originally the precursor to this agreement was signed between theVictorian State Government and Australian Paper Manufacturers in 1961. Amendments to the act were successfully granted in 1966, 1974 and 1984. The act grants the company numerous conditions (including the Waivering of licence fees) for a period of time ending in 2030.
For the period 1996-1997 to 2003-2004, 500,000 cubic metres of nativeforest from the Forest Agreement Area has been granted to the company. The amount of timber is gradually reduced by the following amounts;
2004 - 2005 to 2006 - 2007:..................... 450,000 cubic metres.
2007 - 2008 to 2009 - 2010:...................... 400,000 cubic metres
2010 - 2011 to 2029 - 2030:...................... 350,000 cubic metres.
of which at least ........300,000 cubic metres available from the mountain forests inside the Forest Area. (See map). The act also grants the company access to timber within 200km radius ofthe Maryvale Mill if the company needs it. Two additional amounts are specified in the act;
i) ................150,000 cubic metres
ii) the volume in excess of 300,000 cubic metres of the minimum annual supply of pulpwood. Paperlinx are supposed to pay the government a licence fee of 50 cents per cubic metre, however payment of licence fee is waived by the secretary of DNRE until 1 July 2004.
Royalties from logging operations include (Rate in $ Per Cubic Metre);
ash species* from within the forest area $11.05
mixed species* from within the forest area $ 8.46
pulpwood of whatever class from outside the Forest Area $8.46.
*Ash species are mainly required for fine paper manufacter.
*Mixed species - are mainly required for cardboard and packaging papermanufacter.
MARCH 1997 AGREEMENT ON NATIVE VEGETATION CLEARING
(**It must be noted that although this agreement ended up protecting about 1700HA of priceless remnant forest areas, the company have failed to meet the other 7 points outlined in the agreement. This indicates that Australian Paper have failed to meet the intent of this agreement - as at June 2001.)
An historic agreement was reached today which has resolved the dispute over Amcor's clearing of 1950 hectares of native vegetation forplantation development in Gippsland. The agreement was negotiated by Friends of Gippsland Bush (FOGB) with assistance from the Lake Wellington Rivers Authority. FOGB represent those Gippsland residents who objected to Amcor'sproposal. Mr. Bill Briggs, Manager, Australian Paper Plantations, said the Company had considered the views presented to an independent panel, and had since met with representatives of FOGB to discuss their concerns further. Mr. Briggs said that part of the State Government's decision to grant its permits to clear the land included a land swap of more sensitive environmental land in the Company's estate for Government land, already cleared. In addition to this swap arrangement Mr. Briggs said the Company will now apply a far stricter set of conditions than those set down in the Code of Forest Practice and those attached with the permit.
The main points of the agreement include:
1. Excluding from clearing those slopes in excess of 25 degrees.
2. Increasing the buffer zones around the Traralgon and Rintoul Creeksfrom 30 metres to 50 metres and;
3. Regenerating pine plantation buffer strips with indigenous species.
4. Exclusion of certain blocks from clearing due to the increased protection through points 1 and 2 above and the effect of the browsing potential of native species.
5. Implementation of a joint project with the EPA and LaTrobe Shire to manage turbidity of streams in plantation areas and to advise best practice in order to address management of streamside reserves.
6. Application for federal funding for the training of young unemployed people in revegetation practices to assist with the regeneration of buffers and the rehabilitation of sensitive land.
7. The engagement of an independent expert to advise on Myrtle Wilt and koalas.
8. Commissioning of an independent, mutually accepted environmental consultant by the Company to advise the company and the shire, on all works associated with the development, with particular attention to permit condition 4(d) "habitat protection" and 4(f) "arrangements for the protection of common, rare and endangered fauna during all operations".
(Gippsland Pilot Study - Timber harvesting (coupe) plan certification - FRIENDS OF THE GIPPSLAND BUSH INC. RESPONSE TO FINAL REPORT - August 1998 (October 1998).
* (the legal document governing timber harvesting in Victoria)
Logging breaches conducted by Australian Paper Plantations (APP) and VPC (Victorian Plantation Corporation who supply Amcor/Paperlinx with woodchips) in the Strzelecki Ranges and documented by Friends of the Gippsland Bush include;
* Gullies bulldozed and backfilled. Adult tree ferns totally buried and chainsawed. Riparian vegetation destroyed. Removal of buffer and filter strips leading to the continual encroachment into native vegetation. Felling of trees into gullies. Destruction of flora, fauna and water quality values. Destruction of wildlife corridors.
* Pollution caused by diesel/hyraulic fluid. (Diesel and hydraulic fluids mix with rotting vegetation and tannin, leading to major spillages after rainfall into catchment).
* Lack of roadside batters and bulldozing of gullies eroding into river systems. Unnecessary soil disturbance caused by logging tracks. Inadequate buffers constructed adjacent to roadsides. Slumping road batters leading to severe roadside erosion. Loose roadside earthworks (A factor often encountered in Strezlecki roadwork construction is the addition of erodible effects caused by land mobilisation of soils deposited during construction of roadside shoulders leading to formation of roadside fissures). Erosion caused through innappropriate culvert locations. Concentrated waterflows channelled into unprotected highly erodable soils, that in many cases have recently been subjected to considerable disturbance, causing devastating effects on the environment. Lack of culverts at some locations.
* Thousands of tons of earth being disturbed, displaced, loosened and left on hillsides ready to slip down slopes after rain. Earthworks resembling quarries. Erosion of overburden. Unstable soil sited above gully slopes in at over 60 degrees. Formation of silt plateaus. (Strezlecki soils keep leaching away well after human operations have concluded. When operations locate to other areas these events are repeated. This leaves high turbidity and nutrient levels in watercourses (including town water catchments)).
* Burnt off areas eroding into gullies, thus increasing phosphate loads into water courses. The combination of excessive slopes and lack of soil stability leading to bad erosion and large landslips (slopes often range from 25 - 45 degrees). Landslips occurring after rainfall on recently cleared plantation sites.
* Log landings and dumps usually perched precariously on steep jutting out projections of spur lines (Because of this, watercourses are never far away. The usual way of disposing these dumps in "The Hills" regions of LaTrobe shire is to incinerate them at extremely high temperatures. These extremely hot fires burn deep into the soils seeking out any combustible materials. This leads to tons of unstable soils and ash left on banks awaiting transportation by rainfall. Ash has been known to form a coral like appearance which is super brittle and decomposes on animal and human contact or by the action of raindrops. The habit of denuding gullies from their riparian vegetation complicates the environmental hazard created by these log dumps when burnt. The ashes move unimpeded down the hillsides into water courses increasing phosphorous loads.
* Porous, sandy soil unable to retain nutrients supplied at planting leading to poor vegetation growth after replanting. Plateaus of fine sand deposits at the base of some slopes. These sands are deposited where mainstream gully flows occurs during heavy rains. The material is then transported to the main gully leading into Traralgon Creek. Up to 80cm of sand at some sites after erosion.
* The most definitive document on Myrtle Wilt - "Survey and Monitoring of Myrtle Wilt within Victoria's Cool Temperate Rainforest in Victoria, D.G Cameron, L.A. Turner DNRE 1996", categorically states that: A direct relationship between road construction or maintenance and the wounding of Myrtle Beech was established. Trees subsequently developed symptoms of Myrtle Wilt and, in some instances, were considered to have become the focus for the spread of infection into undisturbed forest (Kile pers. obs.). Myrtle Wilt has been found near adjacent to both APP and Hancock roading in the Strezleckis.
* Destruction of Cool Temperate Rainforest. March 97 and November 97 barring of logging track into canopy of Cool Temperate Rainforest. APP had been alerted to the sensitivity of the area from 1996 until this present time. Roading activities introduced Myrtle Wilt a disease fatal to Myrtle Beech in 1996, into an area which had previously shown no signs of this disease.
* Logging of old growth trees under the guise of plantation management.
THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS
The forests of the Central Highlands are being converted from a 1939 hardwood sawmill resource to a high frequency pulp resource. Many locals have noticed since the signing of the Central Highlands Regional Forest Agreement in early 1998 a massive increase in logging activity (and since Kimberley-Clark were given access to the area) - up to 7 days a week in some cases. The Woodpulp Agreement rushed through Victorian Parliament in March 1996 guarantees Amcor/Paperlinx more than 500 000 cubic metres of timber from their concession zone. Over 80% of the timber resource coming out of the Central Highlands is pulped and increasingly mixed species such as Messmate and Mountain Grey Gum are being logged as the Mountain Ash resource has been cut unsustainably. For instance the Management Plan for the Dandenong region in 1990 stated that there was supposed to be a Mountain Ash resource which would last for 30 years. By 1996 the timber industry was already half way through that.
The Central Highlands includes the Forest Management Areas of Central Gippsland, Central and Dandenong. There were some small green gains from the Central Highlands RFA including the creation of Special Protection Zones which supposedly mean that there is a prohibition on logging of leadbeaters possum habitat and of any ash species established prior to 1900 (This includes Mountain Ash, Shining Gum and potentially Messmate). However the continous impact of logging is causing serious ecological decline, with Cool Temperate Rainforest still be knocked down in areas of mixed species forest. This has contributed to the spread of Myrtle Wilt in many areas of Cool Temperate Rainforest. Logging has seriously impacted upon the ecological health of a number of areas containing old growth forest, including the Starling Hill area, the top end of Starvation Creek (which incidently feeds into Melbourne's water catchment at the Upper Yarra Dam) and Mississippi Creek which was cleared of regrowth forest, and then the area was set fire to, killing many old growth senescent trees. The Central Highlands are home to the nationally endangered Leadbeaters Possum, Spotted Tree Frog, Sooty Owl, Tiger Quoll, Powerful Owl as well as rare vegetation types. - Source: Upper Yarra Conservation Society.
Dioxins and Chlorine in the Paper Making Process
1. Pollution in the Manufacturing Process
2. What Australian Paper Says
3. What is Dioxin?
4. Dioxin at Pulp and Paper Mills
5. Chlorine in the Paper Process
2.4 Pollution in the Manufacturing Process
Source: The Environmental Impacts of Paper-Consuming Office Technologies
in Australia. Final Report. Joseph Gyanesh Pickin - Australian Conservation
Foundation 1996.
"The environmental impact of pulp and paper mill effluents and emissions
has been the subject of intense international scrutiny during the past
decade. While much progress has been achieved in mitigating the more serious
problems within the principal producing regions, complete resolution has
not been reached with respect to known impacts, and new effluent-related
issues may be emerging. . .
2.4.1 Organochlorines
The most environmentally significant class of chemicals in chemical pulp
mill effluents are the ‘organochlorines’ (or chlorinated organics’),
which form from interactions between the pulp and the chlorine (or chloride)
bleaching agent. Many of these chemicals are toxic, and some persist in
the environment and accumulate in sediments and animal tissues. Over 300
different organochlorines may be present in kraft pulp mill effluents
(IIED, 1995), but two families of compounds known as the dioxins and furans
are of particular interest. These include some of the most toxic synthetic
chemicals known. In 1985 dioxins were discovered in discharges from some
US kraft mills, and later in the paper products themselves. Government
and industry were forced to quickly respond to the intense public concern
which followed, and in the space of a few years production processes were
modified so as to greatly reduce formation of dioxins, furans, and organochlorines.
The standard measure of levels of organochlorines is the generic Adsorbable
Organic Halides (AOX). Levels of up to 10kg per air-dried tonne (Adt)
were common in old mills, but in modern mills levels of less than 1kg/Adt
can be expected. Not all organochlorines are toxic and many occur naturally
(Fleming, 1995) so that AOX is considered by many to be a poor indicator
of organochlorine toxicity. Below 1.5kg/ADt, a level readily achievable
by modern pulp mills, "there is no consistent relationship between
AOX and effluent toxicity" (NPMRP, 1995). There is now more focus
on directly measuring levels of those organochlorines known to be toxic,
especially dioxin. In modern mills, however, "the most toxic dioxin
forms are not detectable in effluents" and "whatever toxicity
there is may be caused by other factors,such as organic compounds in the
wood" (ibid). While these researchers and many in the industry consider
the organochlorine problem solved, other groups believe the potential
for environmental damage remains even at these low levels. A section of
the environment movement, led by Greenpeace International and the US Chlorine
Free Products Association, is running an ongoing campaign to entirely
eliminate industrial chlorine use because of the organochlorine issue.
2.4.2 Conventional Pollutants
Chemical pulping is generally much more polluting than papermaking. Conventional
pollutant measures include biochemical and chemical oxygen demand (BOD
and COD) and total suspended solids (TSS). Discharges containing high
BOD consume dissloved oxygen in the receiving waters and, if the concentration
is high enough, can deplete the oxygen supply and severely affect resident
organisms. BOD reductions of 70-95% are achievable through secondary treatment
systems (Mjoberg et al., cited in IIED, 1995) though this requires energy
and generates solid waste. BOD discharge generally ranges from 10-40 kg
per tonne of pulp, but state-of-the-art kraft mills have reached as low
as 2kg/t. TSS consists mainly of bark and wood fibres which normally degrade
within about a month. They can affect aquatic organisms, particularly
by forming mats on the bottom of the receiving water body. A typical value
for TSS in a pulp mill discharge is 20kg/t, and for effluent volume is
40kL/t.
2.4.3 Other Effluent Compounds
Recent work by Canadian and Swedish researchers has revealed that a previously
undetected set of impacts may exist in the sub-lethal physiological responses
of fish to effluent exposure, including disturbance of the reproductive
hormones balance. In Canada these effects were found to occur whether
the mills used chlorine bleaching or not, and it is throught they are
related to a range of compounds including natural wood extracts (IIED,
1995).
2.4.4 Air Emissions
Chemical pulping is the industry’s primary source of gaseous emissions
of concern, these being mainly hydrogen sulphide, oxides of sulphur, oxides
of nitrogen and ‘dust’. Many older mills caused severe air pollution
which manifested most obviously in the ‘rotten egg’ smell of
hyrdogen sulphide. This problem, and that of particulate emissions, has
been largely eliminated from newer plants. Attention has now shifted to
volatile organic compounds which can act as precursors in the formation
of low altitude ozone, a component of smog which can have a serious effect
on human health. In the US the pulp and paper industry is included in
a category of ‘major sources of hazardous air pollutants’ because
of the known presence of volatile organic compounds, chlorine, chloroform
and hazardous metallic air pollutants in pulp mill emissions (ibid). Following
its increased profile in the US, the issue of pulp mill air toxins is
likely to become prominent in other regions.
2.4.5 Solid Wastes
Quantities of generated solid waste vary widely. In the past, up to 250kg
of dry material was produced per tonne of pulp, but today some mills generate
as little as 10kg/t. Solid wastes are generally benign biomass comprising
bark, rejected fibre and bio-solids, combined with small amounts of lime,
clay, wood ash, coal ash and woodyard rejects. The principal issue to
date has been the increasing costs of disposal to land, compared to the
cost of on-site incineration in an acceptable manner. Trends in solid
waste management include cleaner incineration,use of sludge as a soil
conditioner, and a better process control for minimal waste generation.
2.4.6 Technical Developments in Limiting Effluent Toxicity
Over the last 10 years the pulp and paper industry worldwide has invested
hugely to offset environmental damage, focusing mainly on treatment and
management of wastes and modification of bleaching systems. While this
expenditure has too often been undertaken reluctantly, it has not damaged
profitability. A study of 50 manufacturers of white pulp and paper in
six countries found that the longer a firm has invested in pollution-prevention
technologies in its bleaching process, the better its economic performance
(Nehrt, 1995).
2.4.6.1 Modified Chlorine Bleaching
The main driver of the changes has been concern over organochlorines,
and consequently the most significant modifications have been aimed at
reducing the use of chlorine gas, the traditional bleaching agent. Measures
include extended delignification, which works by cooking the pulp for
longer during pulping and so reducing the amount of lignin residues and
the degree of bleaching required on the resultant pulp. Other commonly
used processes involve pre-treatment of pulps with chlorine dioxide, oxygen,
ozone or hydrogen peroxide before chlorine bleaching.
2.4.6.2 Elemental and Totally Chlorine Free (ECF and TCF) Bleaching
Technologies are now widespread which enable complete elimination of chlorine
gas from chemical pulp bleaching processes, and it is unlikely that any
new mill would be built to use elemental chlorine, at least in the developed
world. The best established of the new technologies, with some 40% of
the world bleached chemical pulp market, is Elemental Chlorine Free (ECF)
bleaching. ECF bleaching avoids use of chlorine gas by substituting chlorine
dioxide as the main bleaching agent, often preceded by oxygen delignification.
Effluents contain less total organochlorines and are less toxic than those
produced by chlorine gas.
Totally Chlorine Free (TCF) bleaching is technically more difficult and,
until recently at least, more expensive to retrofit on existing mills.
The process uses neither chlorine nor chlorine compounds and relies solely
on peroxide, ozone and oxygen to achieve satisfactory whiteness. TCF processes
have been pioneered in Europe, particularly Scandanavia, and produce effluents
virtually free from organochlorines. The world market share is around
7%.
A fierce propaganda war is currently being waged between the proponents
of ECF and TCF pulps. ECF lobbying is led by the Alliance for Environmental
Technology, a group of US and Canadian pulp mills which are locked into
ECF production. This groups claims that whereas chlorine elimination is
driven by legitimate environmental concerns, there is no justification
on economic or environmental grounds for TCF. According to them, ECF is
‘the answer’ to the industry’s organochlorine problem and
TCF pulps are inferior and more expensive to produce. They dispute the
environmental claims of TCF proponents, maintaining they are unproven
and are merely bids to win market share and government support at the
expense of the ECF pulps.
TCF manufacturers, on the other hand, contend that the environmental benefits
of their technology are significant and that conversion to ECF is only
halfway to solving the organochlorine problem. Apart from the dioxins
and other organochorines still produced by ECF pulping, they also point
out that chlorine dioxide is explosive, releases poisonous chlorine gas
and leaves chlorinated organic residues in the mill sludge. TCF producing
companies such as Louisiana Pacific of the US and Sodra Cell of Sweden
report dramatic improvements in the quality of their effluent.
The scientific community is uncertain about the relative environmental
merits of the two technologies, but most researchers do not believe that
organochlorine emissions from ECF pulping will cause a problem. According
to Abel (1995) "there is currently no scientific evidence to suggest
that TCF effluents have any less environmental impact than the low organochlorine
ECF effluents". A recent Finnish study found "no significant
difference in toxicity" and concluded that "the natural constituents
of wood are probably responsible for the toxicity observed in the ECF
and TCF effluents" (IIED, 1995). Nelson (1995), on the other hand,
reports that laboratory testing of TCF techniques results in "cleaner
effluents" than ECF. The International Joint Commission of the Great
Lakes Water Quality Agreement concluded that "when chlorine is used
... in a manufacturing process, one cannot necessarily predict or control
which chlorinated organics will result, and in what quantity. Accordingly
... the use of chlorine and its compounds should be avoided in the manufacturing
process" (Greenpeace, 1995).
Environmental groups, including the ACF, generally see TCF pulping as
preferable. While accepting that less organochlorines are released than
previously, Greenpeace points out that 90% of organochlorines in pulp
mill effluent and atmospheric discharges have not yet been specifically
identified or assessed, and cites the ‘precautionary principle’
for why these should not be discharged into the environment. Even low
levels of dioxins, they maintain, can accumulate to dangerous levels.
Further, recent work by the US EPA (1994) suggests that dioxin poses a
significantly greater threat to public health than was previously thought,
so that the ‘safe’ exposure levels may themselves by questionable.
..."
According to PaperlinX websites;
"Maryvale mill uses a small amount of chlorine in its bleaching processes,
but no elemental chlorine is used at our other mills - Burnie, Wesley
Vale, and Shoalhaven. There are no detectable dioxins in the wastewater
discharges at any of the four mills . . ."
"Water and Air
Papermaking requires large volumes of water. . . All four mills have effluent
treatment processes appropriate to the receiving waters. Chemicals used
in the pulping processes are reclaimed and the waste lignin burned in
recovery furnaces to provide energy. Discharges to both water and air
are controlled and monitored . . ."
From REFLEX Environmental Fact Sheet
" . . . Maryvale mill was originally established in 1937, and has
five paper machines with a total annual capacity of 550,000 tonnes of
paper. The mill is an intergrated operation, with three pulp mills supplying
unbleached softwood pulp, NSSC hardwood pulp, and bleached hardwood kraft
pulp to five paper machines.
REFLEX is made from bleached hardwood fibre, but also contains some bleached
softwood fibre and calcium carbonate filler. . . , the total Maryvale
mill fresh water usage is only 47 cubic metres per tonne of paper produced
(or 27 cubic per tonne based on the combined pulp and paper production).
. .
The energy sources used at the mill are natural gas, electricity from
the Victorian grid, and wood wastes from pulping operations. Approximately
47% of the site’s steam and 33% of its electrical requirements are
derived from burning of pulping residues, and the chemicals used for pulping
are recovered and recycled as well.
. . . Bleaching effulent is first treated with lime, clarified in combination
with other mill wastewater, and then discharged to the local water authority
treatment system. In this system it undergoes 70 days of alternating aerobic
and anaerobic treatment before discharge via an ocean outfall . . . No
impact of the effluent has been able to be measured. Some of these studies
have been published.
Dilute effluent from the papermaking operations receives 28 days of treatment,
comprising clarification, biological oxidisation, secondary clarification
and biological polishing before discharge to the Latrobe River. Monitoring
of any impacts on the river is conducted annually in accordance with the
EPA licence.
Thus, despite the use of a small quantity of chlorine in its unique bleaching
sequence . . ."
Environmental Bleaching Maryvale
" . . . In the late 1980s, Australian Paper undertook a research
and development program to address the issue of organochlorines in bleaching
effluents. In 1990 the bleach sequence was modified to include pretreatment
with oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, followed by the combined addition of
chlorine and chlorine dioxide under a modified pH regime. This unique
sequence has resulted in the elimination of dioxin generation, and a substantial
reduction in organochlorine emissions . . .
Effluent from the bleach plant also undergoes extensive treatment before
discharge. The effluent is first treated with lime, clarified in combination
with other mill wastewater, and then discharged to the local water authority
treatment system. In this system it undergoes 70 days of alternating aerobic
and anaerobic treatment before discharge via an ocean outfall which is
designed to achieve high levels of dilution. . .
Levels of AOX discharge after treatment measured per kg/air dried tonne
bleach pulp
1989 - < 1.1
1990 - < 0.6
1991 - about 0.4
1992 - < 0.5
1993 - about 0.3
1994 - above 0.2
1995 - above 0.2
1996 - above 0.2
1997 - about 0.2
1998 - about 0.2
1999 - about 0.2"
The Table below shows a comparison with the 1995 Australian ‘Environmental
Guidelines for New Bleached Eucalypt Kraft Pulp Mills’.
CRITERIA UNITS GUIDELINES MARYVALE
Total Suspended Solids kg/ADt 8 < 2.7
BOD kg/Adt 6 < 0.001
COD (monthly average) kg/Adt 25.4 <16.8
AOX (annual average) kg/Adt 0.3 0.22
Dioxin (2378 TCDD) picogram/L 15 <detection (2ppq)"
By the Clark Fork Coalition
http://www.clarkfork.org/mills.html
"To characterize, it's four chlorines, a couple of oxygens and two
benzene rings.
Dioxin is often used as a catch-all term for three acutely toxic chemical
groups: true dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). What
all of these groups have in common are two benzene rings and chlorine
molecules. The most toxic form of dioxin is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin,
or TCDD for short. The toxicity of other dioxins, furans and PCBs are
all considered in comparison to TCDD.
Dioxin is an industrial poison, an unwanted byproduct of various industrial
operations. In the paper industry, for example, dioxin is formed when
chlorine combines with organic compounds in wood pulp.
To date, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has identified 75 dioxins,
135 furans and 209 PCBs.
Where is it?
Everywhere, and they're deadly. And once they're in the environment, it
takes generations for them to go away. They accumulate in the tissues
of living organisms, getting more and more concentrated as they
move up the food chain, becoming concentrated in fats. Humans are at the
top of the food chain, and over 90 percent of our dioxin exposure comes
from eating animal foods. Once these chemicals are in us, they stay and
cause long-term damage.
Dioxin is found in all of our food, but mostly in animal fats, especially
in animals higher up the food chain. The reason dioxin is so high in meat,
fish and dairy products, but not in grains and vegetables is that it attaches
strongly to fats. Because of this, it concentrates in the bodies of animals.
For example, butter has a high concentration, because it's a high fat
food. But lowfat fish is also high because fish eat invertebrates and
other fish that also have dioxin in their bodies. They build up a higher
dose over their lifetimes than animals like dairy cows that just eat plants.
What does it do?
Dioxin causes a whole host of health problems in humans and animals, including:
cancer; behavioral effects and learning disorder; decreased immune responses;
decreased male sex hormone; diabetes; chloracne; sperm loss; and endometriosis.
We all carry enough dioxin in our bodies to be "at or near"
the level where serious health effects may occur. A research paper published
in Environmental Health Perspectives (by some of the major authors of
EPA's Dioxin Reassessment) compared the minimum dioxin levels shown to
cause health problems with the dioxin level the general population now
carries in their bodies. (And remember, this is an average--some folks
are higher.) The results are not good:
* Cancer occurs in humans at only 10 times the dioxin level now in our
bodies, on average.
* Behavioral effects and learning disorders occur in monkeys at only 10
times the dioxin level now in our bodies.
* Decreased immune responses occurs in monkeys and mice at 25% BELOW the
dioxin level now in our bodies.
* Decreased male sex hormone occurs in humans at only 1.3 times the dioxin
level now in our bodies.
* Diabetes occurs in humans at only 10 times the dioxin level now in our
bodies.
* Sperm loss occurs in humans at only 10 times the dioxin level now in
our bodies.
* Endometriosis occurs in humans at only 10 times the dioxin level now
in our bodies.
How does dioxin do so much damage once it gets into the body?
It attaches to cell receptors that are designed for regulatory hormones
and enzymes. The result--normal
cell function--including that of DNA--can run amok.
Dangerous dioxin contamination has been part of our world only since the
turn of the century--tests for dioxin in lake sediments and tissues of
ancient humans show much lower levels of dioxin than seen in current generations.
It entered our environment in significant amounts with industrial expansion
and the post-World War II explosion of the chlorine and petrochemical
industries.
It took a long time to figure out that dioxin is bad stuff, because the
concentration of dioxin in our bodies is minute: measured in parts per
trillion, (equal to a billionth of a gram of dioxin per kilogram of body
fat).
This level is hundreds or even thousands of times lower than most other
synthetic chemicals of environmental concern. But even at these low levels,
scientists are seeing evidence of serious health effects. (For more information,
read Theo Colborn's excellent book, Our Stolen Future.)
What can we do?
All this about dioxin is frightening. It seems clear that we've seriously
soiled our nests, eroded our own future viability, and jeopardized the
health of living systems. But things can be done. Virtually all dioxin
releases are preventable. We need to make a decision as a society that
dioxin emissions are unacceptable and that there are products and production
processes that we can do without; that we must do without. It's not too
late to undertake these changes. Buying unbleached and chlorine-free bleached
paper is a good start.
Dioxin is not easily broken down, and as a result--it ends up in soil,
water, and on plant surfaces. From there it enters the food chain and
the fats of fish, meat and into dairy products. In fact, over 90% of our
dioxin exposure comes from these foods.
So, what's the best way to protect yourself from dioxin? Eat low on the
food chain, and cut down on your fat intake. For years doctors have been
telling us to cut down on fats to help prevent heart-disease. Here's another
reason to follow that good advice. Animals don't have a choice to change
their diets to avoid dioxin. Many animals, like fish, eagles, wolves,
cougars, dogs and cats, are naturally carnivores. When they eat the food
they've always eaten, dioxins build up in their . They don't have a choice
to eat a lower fat diet like we do. That's why we're working to ensure
that the EPA adopts more stringent rules regarding dioxin emissions at
pulp and paper mills.The best paper buys for the environment:
Unbleached: recycled paper that's not re-bleached.
Processed Chlorine-Free: recycled paper bleached with oxygen-based chemicals
Totally Chlorine-Free: non-recycled paper bleached with oxygen-based chemicals
Many pulp and paper mills use chlorine-based chemicals to bleach pulp
white. These chemicals react with organic molecules in the wood and other
fibers to create many toxic by-products, including dioxin. Dioxin is found
throughout the pulp and paper manufacturing process, its wastes and even
in the paper products themselves.
In the water
Dioxin is in the wastewater from all mills using chlorine bleaching.
Pulp mills use large quantities of water to wash process chemicals off
the paper fibers. This water contains many pollutants, including dioxin
in mills using chlorine-based bleaching. Dioxin concentrations are very,
very low, (often parts per quadrillion in mill wastewater, and sometimes
below the detection limit of 10 parts per quadrillion that most labs use).
But remember that mills release huge volumes of water--28,000
gallons per ton of paper produced at a typical bleached kraft pulp mill--so
this adds up over time. Also, since dioxin doesn't easily break down in
the environment, the dioxin released builds up in the river, lake or ocean
sediments near the pulp mills, and concentrates in the food chain. Because
dioxin persists and
magnifies in the foodchain, it can be hundreds of times more concentrated
in fish than in the water they live in.
A US EPA study, the National Study of Chemical Residues in Fish, found
that fish near chlorine-bleaching pulp and paper mills have significantly
higher dioxin concentrations than anywhere else that's been tested.
Many mills are now switching to chlorine dioxide bleaching (called "elemental
chlorine-free"), but this method still produces some dioxin. Although
we can expect lower dioxin levels in waters and fish after these changes,
some will still be there. And remember: there's no "safe" level
of dioxin exposure.
In the solid waste
Pulp mills treat their wastewater by settling the particles in it and
by a settling process which includes the particulate matter and pollution-eating
bacteria. This settling produces a solid waste called "sludge."
EPA reports bleached kraft pulp mill sludge contamination with the worst
dioxin, (2,3,7,8-TCDD), at a
median concentration of 51 parts per trillion and a maximum concentration
of 3800 parts per trillion. Where this ends up in the environment depends
on how the sludge is disposed of. Most sludge is landfilled or applied
to land. 12% is burned, and 8% is marketed as useful product.
In the air
This hasn't been studied as much as water releases, but EPA's Dioxin Reassessment
did report that pulp mills emit airborne dioxin by burning used industrial
chemicals (called black liquor) in recovery boilers. And any mill that
burns sludge from a chlorinated bleach plant is likely to emit airborne
dioxins as well.
The EPA didn't evaluate airborne emissions from sludge burning in the
Dioxin Reassessment even though their data shows sludges are contaminated
with the worst dioxin, 2,3,7,8-TCDD at up to 3800 parts per trillion,
and that 20% of the sludge produced by bleaching mills is burned. Every
other incineration
process tested releases dioxin in significant amounts, so we can expect
sludge burning is a problem too.
In the paper
EPA estimates that about a third of the dioxin at pulp mills goes into
the paper products themselves. Dioxin TEQ values in a Canadian study found
dioxin ranging from 0.1-22.7 parts per trillion in these paper products:
coffee filters
paper cups
facial tissues
paper plates
disposable diapers
Other products are likely to have dioxin as well, including napkins, paper
towels, milk cartons, printing and office paper and feminine sanitary
products."
Source: Greenpeace
Chlorine chemistry starts with ordinary salt - sodium chloride, a stable
natural substance that flows constantly through the ecosystem and our
bodies. Each molecule of sodium chloride contains one atom of sodium bound
to one atom of chlorine. The chemical industry creates chlorine gas by
passing huge quantities of electricity through salt water, splitting the
salt molecule and fundamentally changing the character of the chlorine
in it. The sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide, sold commercially
as caustic soda. Chlorine was originally considered a waste by-product
from caustic soda production, and is a highly reactive chemical that is
often combined with other materials.
Chlorine gas is a human invention. It is extremely unstable and reactive.
When it comes into contact with organic (carbon containing) molecules,
the chlorine binds tightly to the carbon atoms, creating new
substances called organochlorines. Most chlorine is combined with petrochemicals
to produce organochlorine products, including plastics (especially PVC),
pesticides, solvents and other chemicals. About 15% of chlorine gas is
sold for use outside the chemical industry, primarily as a bleach in the
production of paper.
Because chlorine is so reactive, it combines quickly with organic matter
to form a variety of very toxic by-products and wastes. hundreds of these
accidental organochlorines are released when chlorine is used to
bleach pulp, disinfect water, manufacture other organochlorines and whenever
chlorine-containing chemicals and wastes are burned.
Paper in Australia and around the world is made by toxic chlorine bleaching
that has a negative impact on rivers, lakes, oceans and our health. Chlorine
is used in a number of different forms: as elemental
chlorine gas, chlorine dioxide or sodium hypochlorite. All result in the
discharge of toxic organochlorine by-products. Organochlorines from pulp
mills have been found in water, sediment and food chain as far as
1400 kilometres from their source.
Pulp and paper mills are major sources of dioxins and related compounds
- the most toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative compounds known to science.
Over 300 organochlorines have been identified in the
discharges of bleached pulp mills,including dioxins, furans, chlorinated
phenols, acids, benzines etc. Predator fish and other species near pulp
mills have been found to accumulate dioxins and other organochlorines
at concentrations thousands or even millions of times greater than the
levels in the water itself. Organochlorines are found in paper products
themselves. Environment Canada has estimated that 2% of the organochlorines
formed in the bleaching process remain in the pulp. Dioxins and furans
have been identified in cigarette papers, tampons, disposable nappies,
tissues, coffee filters and bleached milk cartons.
Unbleached off-white paper is suitable for most used, from office paper
to toilet tissue. When white paper is necessary, pulp can now be bleached
using totally chlorine free (TCF) methods. Since the 1970’s
many of the world’s major paper companies have developed chlorine-free
bleaching processes that use oxygen-based bleaches, including ozone, hydrogen
peroxide and oxygen gas.
Known Dioxin Sources from Greenpeace website: http://www.greenpeace.org.au/toxics/archive/dioxin/vic_known.html
Maryvale Pulp and Paper Mill
Sampling carried out between November 1995 and October 1997 found that
effluent from the Maryvale paper mill to be between 0.307n 2.8187 pg/l
l-TEQ (parts per quadrillion) which is below the 15 ppq required by the
National Environmental Guidelines for Bleached Eucalyptus (BEK) Pulp Mills.
With the exception of one sample in 1995 (1.6 pg/g l -TEQ, sediment samples
from ninety Mile Beach, adjacent to the outfall, were below 0.5 pg/g l-TEQ.
Pulp and Paper Manufacturing Processes
Ref: The Environmental Impacts of Paper-Consuming Office Technologies
in Australia
Final Report - Joseph Gyanesh Pickin - Australian Conservation Foundation.
May 1996.
Appendix 2
Pulp and Paper Manufacturing Processes
To understand the environmental issues associated with plain office paper
it is necessary to have some knowledge of the various processes involved
in paper manufacturing generally and the status of the industry in Australia.
These topics are introduced in this section.
A2.1 Fibre Sources
The information in this section is derived mostly from BCG (1995a) and
Appita (1995).
Commercially-produced paper consists of a mat of binded organic fibres
mixed with various additives. In Australia, the primary source is nearly
always trees which can be divided into:
*softwood species (generally radiata pine); and
*hardwood species (generally eucalypts).
Pine fibres are long (about 3mm) and coarse, providing high strength and
tear resistance which is good for wrapping papers. Eucalypt fibres, on
the other hand, are short (about 1mm), finer and more flexible and produce
smoother papers with high opacity. These are characteristics suitable
for printing and writing papers. Australian softwood is sourced from extensive
radiata pine plantations while hardwood is derived from other eucalypt
plantations or native forests. Waste material from the cotton industry
is also used as a high quality input to fine printing and writing papers.
On average, only about half of Australian paper and board products are
made up of virgin fibre. The other half is recycled fibre sourced from
cut-offs and wastes from the production of paper products or from the
collection of post-consumer wastes.
A2.2 Pulping
Three main groups of processes are used for turning the solid material
into a useable pulp:
* Chemical pulping
* Mechanical pulping
* Semichemical and chemimechanical pulping
In chemical pulping, the first step is to convert the logs and logging
debris into woodchips by feeding the material into a rotary chipper. The
chips are then ‘cooked’ in chemicals which dissolve the lignin
that bonds the fibres together, leaving primarily the fibres. The pulp
is washed with water to remove pulping chemicals and dissolved wood components.
Modern pulp mills have a chemical recovery system in which these washings
are concentrated and then burnt to recover the chemicals for reuse and
to generate energy. Pulp is obtained at a typical yield of 45-55% of the
dry woodchip weight and is a brown colour due to residual lignin. The
most common chemical pulping method is the kraft process which uses a
mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphide as pulping chemicals and
produces pulps noted for high strength.
Papermaking pulps can also be manufactured by mechanically seperating
wood into its constituent fibres, either by pressing whole logs against
a cylindrical grindstone, or by passing woodchips between rotating metal
discs equipped with radial bars. This type of process involves the application
of large amounts of energy and produces pulps with lower strength properties
than chemical pulps. Mechanical pulps are suitable for low-cost limited-life
papers such as newsprint and box board. Yield is high (90-98%) as only
water-soluble material in the wood is removed.
In the middle of the continuum is a range of processes known as semichemical
and chemimechanical pulping, which use varying proportions of chemical,
mechanical and heat energy. These processes remove about half of the lignin
in the wood and yield 60-90% of the original dry mass as pulp. The resultant
pulps are usually weaker than chemical pulps and are more difficult to
bleach.
A2.3 Bleaching
The main objective of bleaching is to increase and stabilise the brightness
of the pulp by removing the lignin from the fibre. For chemical pulps
bleaching is a two step process, the first removing the bulk of the lignin
and the second furnishing most of the brightening. The conventional way
of removing the residue lignin involves treatment with chlorine or chlorine
dioxide, or a combination of both, followed by extraction with alkali.
. . Brightening involves the use of bleaching agents over a number of
stages; chlorine dioxide, hypochlorite, oxygen and hydrogen peroxide are
used.
In Australia, when production of printing and writing paper is based on
eucalypt fibre, the term BEK is often used as an acronym for pulps manufactured
from the conventional Bleached Eucalypt Kraft process. Bleached chemical
pulps in general are commonly, if misleadingly, designated ‘woodfree’
because of the minimal lignin content in the product.
Mechanical and chemimechanical pulps contain large amounts of lignin which
has not been appreciably altered during the pulping process. The aim in
bleaching these pulps is to decolourise the lignin without removing it,
and the chemicals hydrogen peroxode and sodium hydrosulphite are commonly
used. Papers made from bleached mechanical pulps tend to yellow over time
because of oxidation of lignin.
A2.4 Matching Pulps to Product Needs
It will be apparent that there are significant differences between wood
pulp fibres, depending both on the properties of the raw material and
on the process used to produce the pulp. Many paper products are made
from blends of long and short fibres so that the appropriate range of
properties will be imparted to the product. Similarly, mixes of mechanical
and chemical pulps are common. It is not normally possible to entirely
replace a chemical pulp with a mechanical pulp due to marked differences
in their properties.
Choice of appropriate pulp or blend of pulps is a complex process which
requires considerable expertise. The combination of pulps selected for
a particular grade may vary over time according to market availability
and conditions. Some substitution of long for short fibres in printing
and writing paper is possible (Higgins, 1991).
A2.5 Papermaking
The fibres separated by the pulping process are diluted to about 99.5%
water and cleaned by means of centrifuges and screens. A range of fillers
and additives are added to assist behaviour during the production process
or enhance qualities such as smoothness, bulk, water resistance, bonding,
strength and colour. Fillers are usually calcium carbonate or kaolinite,
and these may form up to 20% of the mass of the final paper. The ‘stock’
mixture is squirted onto a moving wire mesh to form the sheet. Most of
the paper machine is simply devoted to getting the moisture content down
to around 10% by a series of presses, absorbent felts and heated drums.
Various types of coatings may be added to the surface where a glossy finish
is required. The sheet is then fed through a stack of polished smoothing
rolls and finally wound onto a jumbo roll for later slitting and winding
into customer reels.
A2.6 Recycling
Paper for recycling can be divided into pre-consumer and post-consumer
waste. The former is obtained from printers offcuts and run errors, and
has long been utilised as a resource by the industry. Pre-consumer waste
is clean, uniform and obtained in bulk, and so is relatively cheap to
collect and re-process. Post-consumer waste is material that has been
through its end use and is the main target in the drive to increase recycling
rates.
Post-consumer waste accumulates in households, offices, shops and factories
(used packaging) and is collected by either a private operator, a municipal
authority or a paper manufacturer. The paper may be sorted by hand at
a depot or mill into grades suited to various uses, and is then agitated
in a large vessel of water to break it into its constituent fibres. The
resultant stock must be cleaned of impurites such as wire, string, adhesive,
plastic, paper clips, grit and dirt. Cleaning processes include collecting
from the bottom, skimming, centrifugation and passing a revolving wire
continuously through the stock on which stringy materials become wound.
The ink in printed wastepaper gives the washed fibres a grey colour, and
where this is unsuited to the final product the stock is deinked by adding
alkalis, detergents, water softening agents, frothing agents, bleaches
and other chemicals. Some fibres are degraded into ‘fines’ in
the reprocessing and are removed with the waste effluent. A fractionator
may be used to divide fibres into grades of certain lengths, and a proportion
of virgin fibre may be added according to the type of paper to be produced.
The stock is then ready to be made into paper.